What is it about proficient readers that sets them apart From students Who single With reading? One major difference is that profi-cient readers carry on :m internal monologue while they read. It is as though proficient readers operate with a split personality. One personality is hard at work with the task at hand reading a textbook chapter, for instance the personality concerned with cognitive activities such as selecting what is important in the chapter, organizing the information in conjunction with what is already known, and prepar¬ing to answer a series of questions about the material. It is this personality that gets most of the attention from teachers. We are able to Observe a Student at work and assess the results-the student, we see sit¬ting at a desk, interacting with print.
But it is the second personality that separates the proficient readers from the less effective readers. This personality works in the background, directing and evaluating all the cognitive activities needed to learn successfully. This personality represents that inner voice that issues commands during reading: "Slow down! This is pretty tough going!" "Hold it here! This doesn't make any sense. Better re-read," Or "This stuff doesn't look very important. I'll just skim over it quick¬ly and get into the next section." Effective learners talk to themselves.
Researchers call this internal monologue metacognition-the ability to think about thinking. Metacog¬nition involves a self-awareness of what one is doing and how it is going. It also reflects an ability to switch gears and try something else when learning breaks down, such as when a reading passage is proving par¬ticularly difficult. Ineffective readers approach print passively and continue to plow ahead, even if noth¬ing is making sense. But ineffective readers can be taught how to activate the control center in their minds that directs their learning.
One strategy that triggers students to think about how their reading is proceeding is the Self--Monitoring Approach to Reading and Thinking (SMART) (Vaughan & Estes, 1986).
Using the Strategy
SMART is based on the premise that successful reading begins with recognizing what is understood and not understood in a passage. Using this strategy involves the following steps:
Select a passage of four or five paragraphs that you find personally challenging and ask students to follow along as you think aloud about your reading. It may help to enlarge the passage and place it on an overhead transparency.) After reading a few sentences or a paragraph, comment aloud that you understand this section and make a check mark (4) in the mar¬gin. Continue on, modeling a part that seems confus¬ing by writing a question mark (?) next to the sentence or paragraph. Tel! students that there is something about it you do not fully understand. For example, a short passage about rugby, a game unfamiliar to most students, could serve as an excellent think-aloud using these techniques:
Rugby is a type of football that is popular in the United Kingdom. Rugby matches consist of two 40-minute pe¬riods of play, with a 5¬minute halftime break. A match begins with a kickoff, from the center of the halfway line, of an oval shaped ball somewhat larg¬er than a U,S. football. Each team, which consists of 8 forwards and 7 backs, at¬tempts to ground tile ball in the opposing team's goal area. Action is generally con¬tinuous, although after a penalty, play is resumed by a scrimmage. In a tight scrimmage, a player rolls the ball into a tunnel formed by the opposing team's for¬wards, who are linked to¬gether with their arms about each others waists. As they push, both teams attempt to heel the ball.
STRATEGY INDEX
Cognitive Processes
Activating/focusing
Selecting/organizing
Integrating/applying
Text Frames
Cause/Effect
Concept /definition
Problem/solution
Compare/contrast
Proposition/support
Goal/action/outcome
Student activities
Developing vocabulary
Brainstorming of ideas
Learning cooperatively
Promoting discussion
Interactive reading
Encouraging writing
Graphic representation
building study skillis
Parts of this passage will probably make sense, but at other points a pause is needed so you can record a question mark to highlight material that needs clarifi¬cation.
After reading the entire passage, model to students how to paraphrase material in words 'that make sense to them. Look at each (?) recorded in the
margin. Brainstorm with students what could be done to make sense of those parts. Observe that some ques¬tion marks may make sense after the entire passage is read. If so, change them to check marks. List and dis¬cuss students' suggestions for dealing with remaining question marks.
Mead the SMART protocol to students (see Read SMART!). Model the steps under Trou¬bleshoot using a new passage, perhaps from the text¬book, as students follow along. Emphasize strategies that students can try before they ask for help, and that successful readers return to clear up each question (?).
READ SMART!
1. Read. Read a section of the text. Using a pencil, lightly place a check mark (d) next to each para¬graph that you understand. Place a question mark (?) next to each paragraph that contains something . you do not understand.
2. Self-Translate, At the end of each section, stop and explain to yourself, in your own words, what you read. Look back at the text as you go over the material,
3. Troubleshoot. Go back to each (?) and see i( you can now make sense of the paragraph.
a. Re-read the trouble spot to see if it now makes sense. If it still does not make sense:
b. Pinpoint a problem by figuring out why you are having trouble;
• Is it a difficult word or unfamiliar vocabulary?
• Is it a difficult sentence or confusing language?
• Is it a subject about which you know very little?
c. Try a Fix-Up Strategy:
• Use the glossary or some other vocabulary aid.
• Look over the pictures or other graphics.
• Examine other parts of the chapter (summary, review section, diagrams, or other features).
d. Explain. to yourself exactly what you do not un¬derstand or what confuses you.
e. Get Help. Ask the teacher or a classmate.
Have students read a passage on their own using the check mark and question mark system. Have them work through the SMART protocol with a part-ner, verbalizing what is understood and not under¬stood, and working together through any problems, Emphasize that before asking for help students should he able to (1) specify the source of their problem (an unfamiliar word, an unclear sentence, or a need for more examples), and (2) explain how they tried to solve their problem.
Advantages
• Students are provided with a system that helps them actively monitor their reading success.
• Students learn to verbalize what they do and do not understand in a reading.
• Students are encouraged to persist until tire reading makes sense. Students have is steps to use to clear up trouble spots.
• Students become involved in summarizing the material in their own words, thus helping them to remember well as understand.
This strategy is adaptable to Most subject areas and is appropriate for elementary through high school lev¬el students. It is especially effective in cooperative group or tutorial Settings.
Reference
Vaughan, J., & Estes, T. (19fl6). Reading and reasoning beyond the primary grades. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Story impressions
Teen athletes ...concussions ...soccer. football, volley¬ball susceptible head injury...62,81)D...headaches, sleep disorders ...high risk ...learning disabilities.
Can you piece together the storyline implied by the preceding chain of key words excerpted from a recent newspaper article? In all likeli¬hood, by connecting these terms and drawing from what you already know about them, you can success¬fully infer the focus of this public health report.
As you surmised, the article raises cautions about concussions suffered by teen athletes, especially those participating in sports such as soccer, football, and vol-leyball. Adolescents are more susceptible to head in¬jury from concussions, and a recent study estimated that 62,800 adolescents receive at least mild sports related concussions each year. Symptoms of a concus¬sion include headaches and sleep disorders, and students with learning disabilities are especially at risk for lingering brain injury resulting from concussions.
The chain of key words that was provided prompted you to access what you know about sports concussions, and perhaps your curiosity was piqued about what the article said about dangers for teen ath¬letes. You were able to form an impression of the text before you actually read it.
Using the Strategy
Story Impressions (McGinley & Denner, 1987) is a strategy that introduces significant terms and concepts to students before they encounter them in an assign¬ment. Using the strategy involves the following steps.
Preview a text section or story, and identify a se¬ries of terms or two or three-word phrases relat¬ed to significant information or plot events. List the terms as they are presented in the text, in the order students will encounter them while reading. This step cues students to the sequence of events or cause/effect relationships. Create a student worksheet with the terms arranged in a vertical column, connected by ar¬rows to indicate order (see Story Impressions for Earth Science). For example, to prepare students for a text¬book passage on geysers, select a chain of terms and phrases that emphasize how volcanic activity leads to the heating of groundwater, which can sometimes cre¬ate geysers.
Have students work with partners to brainstorm possible connections to the chain of clues on their worksheets. Using what they might know about some of the terms, encourage them to make predictions about both the content of the text and the meanings of unfamiliar key words. In the earth science example, students can tap their knowledge about how volcanic activity generates heat and brainstorm possible con¬nections to geysers. Some students will realize that heated water builds up pressure, which explains the phenomena of geysers such as Old Faithful in Yellow¬stone National Park, Wyoming. Students may also need to 'form conjectures of the meanings of terms such as igneous, fissure, and constricted as they work on their predictions.
Have students draft their own impression of what © a text might contain. First, inform them of the con¬text for the terms-textbook passage, short story, newspaper article, or biogra¬phical excerpt. Ask students to create a possible version of this text, based on their knowledge of the key terms and their hunches about un¬known items. In the box ad¬jacent to the word chains, have students write a para¬graph representing their pre¬diction of the text, All terms from the chain must be used in this paragraph, and stu¬dents should integrate them into their writing in the order that they appear on the list. Have partners share their prediction summaries with the entire class. For example, a pair of earth science stu¬dents might use their partial knowledge of terms to record this impression:
STRATEGY INDEX
Cognitive Processes
Activating/focusing
Selecting/organizing
Integrating/applying
Text Frames
Cause/Effect
Concept /definition
Problem/solution
Compare/contrast
Proposition/support
Goal/action/outcome
Student activities
Developing vocabulary
Brainstorming of ideas
Learning cooperatively
Promoting discussion
Interactive reading
Encouraging writing
Graphic representation
Building Study Skills
Volcanic activity pushes igneous rocks out of the center of the earth. The high temperature there heats groundwater to the boiling point, and it becomes steam. This steam has pent up pressure which causes it to fissure and then change to hot springs. The hot springs come out of the ground in a constricted tube with an eruption. This is called a geyser, like old faithful in Yellowstone.
together the storyline implied by the preceding chain of key words excerpted C from a recent ne+vspaper article? In all likeli¬hood, by connecting these terms and drawing From what you already know about them, you can success¬fully infer the focus of this public health report.
As you surmised, the article raises cautions about concussions suffered hy teen athletes, especially those participating ill SpUltS SIICII a5 soccer, football, and vol¬leyball. Adolescents are more susceptible to head in¬jury from concussions, and a recent study estimated that 62,800 adolescents receive at least mild sports¬related concussions each year. Symptotns of a concus¬sion include headaches and sleep disorders, and students with learning disabilities are especially at risk for lingering brain injury resulting from concussions.
The chain of key words that was provided prompted you to access what you know about sports concussions, and perhaps your curiosity was piqued about what the anicle said about dangers for teen ath¬letes. You were able to form an impression of the text before you actually read it.
Using the Strategy
Story impressions (McGinlcy & Denner, 1987) is a strategy that introduces significant terms and concepts to students before they encounter them in an assign¬ment. Using the strategy involves the following steps:;
Preview a text section or story, and identify a se¬ries of terms or two- or three-word phrases relat¬ed to significant information or plot events. List the terms as they are presented in the text, in the order students will encounter them while reading. This step cues students to the secluence of events or cause/effect relationships. Create a swdent worksheet with the terms arranged in a vertical column, connected by ar¬rows to indicate order (see Story Impressions for Earth Science). For example, to prepare students for a text¬book passage on geysers, select a chain of terms and phrases that emphasize htnv volcanic activity leads to
132
the heating of groundwater, which can sometimes cre¬ate geysers,
©Have students work with partners to brainstorm possible connections to the chain of clues on their worksheets. Using what they might know about some of the terms, encourage them to make predictions about both the content of the text and the meanings of unfamiliar key words. In the earth science example, students can tap their knowledge about how volcanic activity generates heat and brainstorm possible con¬nections to geysers. Some students will realize that heated water builds up pressure, which explains the phenomena of geysers such as Old Faithful in Yellow¬stone National Park, Wyoming. Students may also need to' form conjectures of the meanings of terms such as igneous, fissure, and constricted as they work on their predictions.
Have students draft their own impression of what El a text might contain. First, inform them of the con¬text for the terms-textbook passage, short story, newspaper article, or biogra¬
phical excerpt. Ask students to create a possible version of this text, based on their knowledge of the key terms and their hunches about un¬known items, in the box ad¬jacent to the word chains, have students write a para¬graph representing their pre¬diction of the text. All terms from the chain must be used in this paragraph, and stu¬dents should integrate them into their writing in the order that they appear on the list. Have partners share their prediction summaries with the entire class. For example, a pair of earth science stu¬dents might use their partial knowledge of terms to record this impression:
STRATEGY INDEX
Cognitive Processes ,
Activating/Focusing
Selecting/organizing
Text Frames
~+ NS~" 19y,
w"
Problem/Solution
Compare/Contrast
Prop ositIonISupparl
Goal/Action/Outcome
Student Activities
Learning Cooperatively
Promoting Uiscussian
Interactive Reading
Graphic Representation
Building Study Skills
Chain of Events
volcanic activity
igneous
temperature
groundwater
boiling stearl
pent up pressure
fissure
hot springs
constricted tube
eruption
geyser
Old Faithful
rock
Volcanic activity pushes igneous rocks out of the cen¬
ter of the earth. The high there in the chain that they used accurately in their predic¬
temperature
groundwater heats
to the boiling point, and 3t becomes steam. tion summaries. To solidify new learning, have stu¬
This steam has pent up pressure which causes it to fis¬ dents write a second summary paragraph, again using
sure and then change to hot springs. The hot springs all the terms in the order they are represented in the
come out of the ground in a constricted tube with an
eruption. This is called a like Old chain. Have them contrast their prediction summaries
geyser,
lowstone. Falthful in Yel¬ with the ones they wrote after reading the article to
highlight any similarities between their impressions
4 Now that students have encountered key terms and the actual text.
pi and concepts, activated relevant prior knowledge, For example, student.e studying U.S. history in the
and entertained predictions about the material, have early 20th century were given a story impression for a
~f them test their impressions by reading a text selection
or As textbook section on Theodore Roosevelt's presidency.
story. they read, have them check off the terms After reading the passage, students revisited key terms,
tr
f
STORY IMPRESSIONS FOR EARTH SCIENCE
Your version of what the textbook might say: Write a paragraph using the chain words in order.
133
M
STORY IMPRESSIONS FOR HISTORY Roosevelt Era
.Key Terms
Teddy Roosevelt progressive Square Deal reform
corruption regulate trust buster law suits consumer dangerous Food & Drug Act National Parks reclamation
Story Summary: After reading Section 2-Write your summary para-graph about Theodore Roosevelt below. Add 5 additional terms from Section 2; write them In the place you feel these terms belong In the left column. Again, you must use all the terms in your summary (includ¬ing your 5 new ones) in the order that they appear on the list.
st
I:
pleasu'I movie of the ~l into st Ch,,
their fill elemen~ & McKel their kti ries. SJ story eli! dents bt and rem
USIn
Store and long!, strategy il
~ Reinj l
ty. F~
inb tile f~story. Wh~l Students +{ who the ~, where thn, These cot', presented;,i
~ (see Story,' ~t can be re,l :~ story; Whi ' volve settii ' of the plot t the story's i; theme of tl
Mead t ' ~7 its cle;
added new terms deemed significant to the time peri¬od, and developed a summary paragraph that demon¬strated their understanding of the passage (see Story Impressions for History).
A story impressions chain makes an excellent prompt for essay exams. Students can be asked to syn¬thesize their learning by linking together key informa¬tion into a meaningful summary statement of the material from a unit of study.
Advantages
Students are introduced to essential terminolo¬gy and information hcfcnr they become im¬ntu:scd ill reading.
• Students marshal what they know about a topic and brainstorm possible connections to the new material.
Students receive guidance in two comprehen¬sion tasks that are often difficult: determining importance and summarizing.
Students have an opportunity to verbalize their learning in writing and can contrast what they knew before reading with what they know now.
After sufficient practice, students can be asked to create their own chains of key terms-as a comprehension activity and for use as story im¬pressions to prepare their classmates for a new selection.
Reference
McGinlcy, W., & Uenner, I'. (1)87). Story impressions: A pre¬reading/writing activity. Journal of Reading, 31, 248-2$3.
a
0
aWnWIM
xA.3?f. "?i7;C
M
134
.Key Terms
Teddy Roosevelt
1 reform i
1 reclamation
progressive Square Deal
corruption
regulate
trust buster
law suits
consumer
dangerous
Food & Drug Act
National Parks
added new terms deemed significant to the time peri¬od, and developed a sumtnaty paragraph that demon¬strated their understanding of the passage (see Story Impressions for History).
A story impressions chain makes an excellent prompt for essay exams. Students can be asked to syn¬thesize their learning by linking together key informa¬
tion into a meaningful summary statement of the material from a unit of study.
Advantages
134
• Students are introduced to essential terminolo¬gy and inform;uion I)rfcnre they become inr mcrscd in rcatlin);.
• Sttrraents marshal what they know about a topic and brainstorm possible connections to the new material.
STORY IMPRESSIONS FOR HISTORY
Roosevelt Era
Story Summary: After reading Section 2-Write your summary para¬graph about Theodore Roosevelt below. Add 5 additional terms from Section 2; write them in the place you feel these terms belong In the left column. Again, you must use all the terms in your summary (includ¬ing your 5 new ones) in the order that they appear on the list.
M
Reference
MrGinlcy, W., 5c Uenner, I'. (1)87). Story impressions: A pre¬reading/writing activity. Journal ojReading, 31, 248-253.
Students receive guidance in two comprehen¬sion tasks that are often difficult: determining importance and summarizing.
Students have an opportunity to verbalize their learning in writing and can contrast what they knew before reading with what they know now.
After sufficient practice, students can be asked to create their own chains of key terms-as a comprehension activity and for use as story im¬pressions to prepare their classmates for a new selection.
Story Mapping
Once upon a time... Could you plea,ce read me a ston'. Dad? Did you hear the story about the ice fisherman who... You'll never believe what happened last night! Let me tell you the whole story....
1 tories-we grew up hearing them as children. We read them throughout our schooling. We re¬lax while enjoying them in novels we read for pleasure. We experience them on television and in movie theaters, and we tell them to our friends. Much of the way we view the world around us is organized into stories.
Children encounter narrative text very early in their lives, and they begin to internalize the common elements found in most stories. Story Mapping (Beck & McKeown,1981) is a strategy that helps students use their knowledge of narrative structure to analyze sto¬ries. Story Maps feature graphic representations of key story elements. The resulting visual outline helps stu¬dents build a coherent framework for understanding and remembering a story.
Using the Strategy
Story Maps can be created for both short stories and longer works of fiction, such as novels. Using the strategy involves the following steps:
© Reinforce with students the key elements of a sto¬.F r introduce ry o example, story structure by pos¬ing tile following question: 1,111 going to read you .1 story. What would you want to know about this story? Students would likely comment that they want to know who the story is about, what happens in the story, where the story takes place, and how the story ends. These common elements of narrative structure can be presented as a Story Star on an overhead transparency (see Story Star). Note how each of the above questions can be reworded to reflect the basic elements of a story; Who?refers to characters, Where?and When?in¬volve setting and mood, What happens? details events of the plot, How did it end? involves the resolution of I the story's conflict. Wby questions get at the author's 9 theme of the story,
F] Read to students a story that you have selected for its clear illustration of story structure. When you
rA
have finished the ston', hand out blank Stow Maps (.seev eAppendi.~, page 166) to each student. Ha~~e them fill in the key information from the story as you mod¬el this process on an overhead transparency. Empha¬size the recording of only major events-those that move the plot along-and establish the initiating event that sets the story into motion. (lnstwct student to cir¬cle the number of this event on their maps.) Students expect a story to feat-Lire some son of conflict, and how that conflict gets resolved is what makes a story inter¬esting. As pan of the modeling, review the basic kinds of conflict inherent in fictional literature:
within a person (a character is struggling with him or herself, trying to figure out what to do);
between people (a character has some sort of problem with others that needs to be ad¬dressed); and
between people arid nature (a character is pre¬sented with a difficult natural situation that he or she must overconu-tltrc;tlcning animals, treach¬erous weather, a dan¬
gerous environment, or a disistcr such as a fire).
STRATEGY INDEX
Cognitive Processes=
ArlivalinglFocusing
Selectlng/0rganlifefi' ~',
Into
Frames gfallnglAppfylrro,"P~vTe>f,;rusnlF.llncl
f,nnr,npf/Oclinilion
Problem/Snlotion t
t',nntparr.ICnnlrast
f'rnpsllion/Sltpitorl
GoaIlActlon/Gtitcoms:;n: ~
5tudentAcflvifies '
Devr.lnping Vncahtflary
BR rainslortnlng of Ideas
Learning Cooperatively
Promoting Discussion
Interactive AeaQlnp-';1 ~
bicaora(ling Writing
Graphic Aeprel6tah0.
- Building Study 01111"?
For example, ninth grader, s reading the
e. Stephen King short story, "f3attlc¬);rcond," first idcnlify thr characters (the hired killer, Renshaw, and the tiny sol¬diers), and the setting (Renshaw's San Francisco apartment). They note that the action is initiated by the arrival of a box of miniature soldiers to Renshaw's apart¬ment, and they record the other major events leading to the climax-when Renshaw attacks his tiny assailants from the ledge outside his window. Subsequent action Includes an explosion, Ren¬shaw's death, and the on¬
135
STORY STAR
Where? (Setting)
When? (Mood)
What happened? (Events of the Plot)
(Buehl,1995)
lookers' discovery of a message about a scale-model atomic bomb, which had arrivml Unbeknownst to Ren¬shaw with the tiny soldiers. Students identify the con¬flict as betweenpecyle, and observe that this conflict is resolved with llensh:m's death (ace Story Map for "Bat¬tleground").
Model with students how to use the organized in¬formation in the Story Map to determine the au¬thoes theme. Emphasize that the conflict and the way it is resolved provide a great deal of insight into pos¬sible points the author may have wished to communi¬cate through the story. Students will recognize in "Battleground" that the tables are ironically turned on the major character. Renshaw is an assassin who gets his due. Students might articulate the theme as, What goes around comes around, or The hunter can easily become the hunted, or Those who live by violence die by violence.
the author's possible themes. Questions may also fo¬cus on the author's craft, such as the use of language and literary devices used in developing the story's components. For example, questions for "Battle¬ground" might highlight the irony of a wily killer being outwitted by someone he has victimized. Questions about specific events in the rising action could estab¬lish how Renshaw's mood changed from annoyance to anger to desperation. Ask students to articulate author themes based on support cited from the text.
© Have students use the Story Map to analyze a short story that they read independently. After reading, have the students work with a partner to com¬plete a new Story Map. Solicit possible statements from the whole group about the author's theme, and discuss the rationale for each statement based on information from the story.
Demonstrate how significant questions that can be asked about a story conform to the structure displayed in the Story Map. Significant questions should relate to the setting, character development, events of the plot, the conflict and its resolution, and
Advantages
• Students are provided with a visual framework for understanding and analyzing stories, and their knowledge of story structure is reinforced
136
lookers' discovery of a message about a scale-model atomic bomb, which had arrivml Unbeknownst to Ren¬shaw with tile tiny soldiers. Students identify the con¬flict as between people, and observe Ell-,It this conflict is resolved with Itells, aw's (.1c.1111 (s
cc story Map for "Bat¬
tleground").
Model with students how to use the organized in¬©formation in the Story Map to determine the au¬thor's theme. Emphasize that the conflict and the way it is resolved provide a great deal of insight into pos¬sible points the author may have wished to communi¬cate through the story. Students will recognize in "Battleground" that the tables are ironically turned on the major character. Renshaw is an assassin who gets his due. Students might articulate the theme as, What goes around comes around, or The hunter can easily become the hunted, or Those who live by violence die by violence.
Demonstrate how significant questions that can be asked about a story conform to the structure displayed in the Story Map. Significant questions should relate to the setting, character development, events of the plot, the conflict and its resolution, and
136
Who? (Characters)
How did it end? (Resolution)
STORY STAR
Where? (Setting)
the author's possible themes. Questions may also fo¬cus on the author's craft, such as the use of language and literary devices used in developing the story's components. For example, questions for "Battle¬ground" might highlight the irony of a wily killer being outwitted by someone he has victimized. Questions about specific events in the rising action could estab¬lish how Renshaw's mood changed from annoyance to anger to desperation. Ask students to articulate author themes based on support cited from the text,
©Have students use the Story Map to analyze a short story that they read independently. After reading, have the students work with a partner to com¬plete a new Story Map. Solicit possible statements from the whole group about the author's theme, and discuss the rationale for each statement based on information from the story.
Advantages
Students are provided with a visual framework for understanding and analyzing stories, and their knowledge of story structure is reinforced
When? (Mood)
What happened? (Events of the Plot)
Title: Battle-ground
m
Climax:
Renshaw attacks the sofrlir'r. sr.s from the window ledge, ,
Renshaw crawls out bathroom window and edges 9. along narrow ledge to living room window.
Soldiers demand that Renshaw surrender; he S. refuses and makes bomb from tighter fluid.
7.
6.
5.
4.
3.
He finds the package from Miami in his apartment.
Renshaw returns from 1, killing Hans Morris,
Setting:
Renshaw's high-rise apartment in ~ I 10an Francisco
J
as a foundation for the successful reading of nar¬rative text,
Questions for guiding and discussing stories that are derived from the elements of story structure lead to more coherent and integrated compre¬hension from students. Students improve their ability to predict probable questions for a par¬ticular story.
Students become practiced in using story struc¬ture as a basis for the creation of their own sto¬ries. Students also have a clear model for the writing of summaries and other reactions to the stories they read,
STORY MAP FOR «gATTLEGROUND"
References
Resotutlon:
Other Work Cited
11: A blast kills Renshaw.
T \2. The couple on the street find bloody shirt.
9 \1 3. Paper with Atomic Bomb °.listed floats down,
Renshaw vs. the Soldiers (People against People)
Renshaw dies, killed by the tiny soldiers.
(
Author's Theme:
The tables can be turned and the hunter can easily become the hunted,
J
This strategy is appropriate for most narrative text It can be modified for use with some types of exposi¬tory material, such as biographies and autobiographies,
Beck, i., Rc McKeown, M. (19A1). Developing questions that promote comprehension: The story map. l.anguageArfs, $8, 913-9t8.
Dueltl, D. (1995). Classroom slralc;yios fnr Intercrctfue learning, Madison, WE Wisconsin Stwc licacling Association,
King, S. (1978). Battleground, :n Nightsho. New York: Dou¬hlcclay.
137
Soldiers blow a hole in bathroom door and
continue the attack.
Renshaw escapes to bathroom to c
0
avoid tiny rocket launcher. U
Q
Renshaw shoots tiny helicopters with
his pistol. Q :
A battle starts; soldiers shoot at c
Renshaw with tiny weapons.
Tiny Soldiers emerge from the
G. 1. Joe footlocker In package,
0
Structured Notetaking
ake sure you take notes on this!" This oft-heard directive is delivered by teachers almost daily to students learning from print, classroom pre¬sentations and discussions, and from video. Teachers know that notetaking is a prerequisite for remembering and learning, :~n(I tliat it is an cas(;ntial study SLI-Mcgy.
Yct tcachers arc frvqucntly disappainle(I with the rcsults of suolcnt ncn(a;tl(inl;. Student notes often are disorganized and kick Inll)UI'I:InI Int(11'Ill:IfIU11. Students are frequently confused as to what to write down and what to Ic:v(: Out. Same suUlents assStructured N(xetaking (Smith & Tompkins,1988) is a Strategy that guides students toward taking more ef¬fective notes. The strategy makes use of graphic or¬ganizers, a powerful means of' representing ideas and information. Graphic organizers I)rovide students with a visual framework fin' making dccisiuns alx)ut what should be included in their notes and impose a struc¬ture on student notes that make them useful for fu¬ture referral. Structured Notetaking is an excellent strategy to use in all aspects of classroom learning in which notetaking is desirable-from printed rnateri¬als, video, teacher presentations, and class or group discussions.
Using the Strategy
Structured Notetaking involves creating graphic outlines that serve as organized study guides for stu¬dents as they take their notes. Eventually students will be able to devise their own suvcn1red notes as an in¬dependent study skill. Using this strategy involves the following steps.
U
Preview the content Students will be learning and identify the organizational structure that is best represented in the material. The following six text frames address common ways that information is or-ganized (see Text Frames in Chapter 2):
• Problem/Solution
138
• Compare/Contrast
• Cause/Effect
• Proposition/Support
• Goal/Action/Outcome • Concept/Definition
El
Create a graphic organizer using boxes, circles, ar¬rows, and other visual structures that emphasize a particular text frame. Label with frame language, such as causes/effects, similarities/differences, or prob¬lem/causes of problem/possible solutions. Distribute this graphic organizer to students as a notetaking study guide. They will take notes by recording relevant in¬formation in the appropriate spaces in the graphic out¬line. Before students begin the structured notes, call attention to the specific text frame being followed. Highlight the type of text frame being used each time you provide structured notes so that students recog¬nize the various types of text frames and internalize their use. Students need to be aware that boxes and circles are not randomly placed on a page, but that each graphic organizer is devised
meaningful connections.
For example, a selection for a science class about en¬dangered animals may ad¬here to a problem/solution text frame. Provide students with Endangered Animals graphic outlines to be filled in with their notes from the reading (see Structured Note¬taking for Science: Endan-gered Animals). The first endangered animal in the se¬lection is the dolphin. As they read, have students select in¬formation that fits into the four boxes in the graphic ("dolphins get caught in un¬derwater tuna nets," "com¬mercial fisheries are causing the problem," "we can buy tuna with the 'dolphin-safe' designation," and "we can lobby for international fishing
to help them perceive
STRATEGY INDEX
Cognitive Processes
Activating/Focusing
Text Frames : .,I
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Student Activities
Developing Vocabulary
Brainstorming of Ideas
Leaming Cooperatively
Promoting Discussion
Encouraging Writing
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A uke sure you take notes on this!" This oft-heard directive is delivered by teachers almost daily to students learning from print, classroom pre¬sentations and discussions, and front video. Teachers know that notetaking is a prerequisite for rentembering and learning, in(I tllat it i, an essential study stratcgy.
Yet teachers are frequently disapi)oinlcd with the resulta uf stu(Icn noteutking. Student notes often are disorganiu(I an(I I:n'k lnli)UI'tanl IntUl'n1:If1011. Students are frequently confused as to what to write down and what la Ic:m Out. Sume studcnts associate nOWL.Lking with mindlessly copying material verbatim from a book, the chalkboard, or from an overhead trans¬parency. l'he result may he a notc:hook that contains a lot of writing but is incflcrtive as ;I rescnu'cr far study.
Structured Nexectking (Smith & Tompkins, 1988) is a strategy that guides students toward taking more ef¬fective notes. The stratrl;Y ui;lkcs usc of graphic Or¬ganizers, a powerful means of' representing ideas and infornr,uian. Graphic organizers provide students with a visual framework for ulaking decisions about what should be included in their notes and impose a slNC-. ture on student notes that make them useful for fu¬ture referral. Structured Notetaking is an excellent strategy to use in all aspects of classroom learning in which notetaking is desirable-from printed tnateri¬als, video, teacher presentations, and class or group discussions.
STRATEGY INDEX
Cognitive Processes
Activating/Focusing
Text Frames
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Student Activities
Developing Vocabulary
Brainstorming of Ideas
Learning Cooperatively
Promoting Discussion
Encouraging Writing
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Structured Notetaking
• Cause/Effect
• Proposition/Support
• GoaUAction/Outcome • Concept/Definition
. STRUCTURED NOTETAKING FOR SCIENCE: ENDANGERED ANIMALS
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what kind of problem is this animal having?
Dolphins are being caught in underwater tuna nets and are being killed.
Dolphins live in deep sea waters in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.
Commercial fisheries who use this type of underwater net to catch tuna.
138
139
Using the Strategy
Structured Notetaking involves creating graphic outlines that serve as organized study guides for stu¬dents as they take their notes. Eventually students will be able to devise their own structured notes as an in¬dependent study skill. Using this strategy involves the following steps.
Preview the content suolcnts will be learning and ~ identify the organizational structure that is best represented in the material. The following six text frames address common ways that information is or-ganized (see Text Frames in Chapter 2):
• Problent/Solution
• Compare/Contrast
Create a graphic organizer using boxes, circles, ar¨ rows, and other visual structures that emphasize a particular text frame. Label with frame language, such
as causes/effects, similarities/differences, or prob¬lem/causes of problem/possible solutions. Distribute this graphic organizer to students as a notetaking study guide. They will take notes by recording relevant in¬formation in the appropriate spaces in the graphic out¬line. Before students begin the structured notes, call attention to the specific text frame being followed. Highlight the type of text frame being used each time you provide structured notes so that students recog¬nize the various types of text frames and internalize their use. Students need to be aware that boxes and circles are not randomly placed on a page, but that each graphic organizer is devised to help them perceive meaningful connections.
For example, a selection for a science class about en¬dangered animals may ad¬here to a problem/solution text frame. Provide students with Endangered Animals graphic outlines to be filled in with their notes from the reading (see Structured Note¬taking for Science: Endan-gered Animals). The first endangered animal in the se¬lection is the dolphin. As they read, have students select in¬formation that fits into the four boxes in the graphic ("dolphins get caught in un¬derwater tuna nets," "com¬mercial fisheries are causing the problem," "we can buy tuna with the 'dolphin-safe' designation," and "we can lobby for international fishing
Write the name of an endangered animal here;
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regulations"). Ask students to continue reading and complete a second graphic organizer for the next en¬dangered animal.
Structured Notetaking provides a number of op¬Elportunt '
ties for students to collaborate. When in¬troducing the strategy, have students work in pairs while reading a passage. As part of this process, ask students to justify to their partners decisions on what to select and where to place it in the graphic outline. For example, history students viewing a video pro¬gram on the migration of African Americans from the rural, southern United States to northern cities in the early 20th century are provided with a graphic organ¬izer that presents both cause/effect and compare/con¬trast text frames (see Structured Notes for History Video). As students view the video, have them first in¬dividually record information that describes life in the
rwhat can be done to help this animal?
rural South and the contrasting life in Chicago, Illinois. Students also are cued into seeking the causal factors that encouraged African Americans to relocate to northern urban areas. Instruct them to,write quickly and not to worry about legibility and completeness.
When the video is over, put students in pairs or small groups and provide thern a second blank copy of the graphic organizer. Instruct students to compare
notes from the video with their classmates to develop a more thorough set of structured notes. Collect and photocopy the final exemplary notes for each mem¬ber of the group,
4
As students gain practice using structured notes, they will begin to develop their own graphic or¬ganizers to structure their notes ((ones, Pierce, & Hunter, ]988/1989). At first, help students to ldentify the most appropriate text frWe can buy tuna that is marked "dolphin-safe.¬
We can write letters to government leaders for international fishing controls.
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Life in the South Before Migration North
• Many lived in shacks
• Poor food
• Segregation
• Low wages
• Fewjobs
• Jim Crow laws
• KKK harassment
• Poor schools
• Second class status
• Discrimination
• Boll Weevil ruined cotton
• Racial violence
• Lack of protection from courts and law
(Bueh1,1995)
notes, a task that they will become increasingly able to accomplish independently.
Advantages
140
STRUCTURED NOTES FOR HISTORY VIDEO
Factorsthat Encouraged African Americans to Move North to Chicago
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Students are able to see relationships between ideas as they take notes-they realize that note¬taking u more than writing down isolated pieces of information.
Students are able w take notes that are coher¬ent and easy to use for study and future learn¬ing.
Students are provided with organizational mod¬els that illusnate the basic structure of the infor¬mation they are learning.
Structured notes emphasize visual representa¬tion of information, which facilitates memory of the material.
• Student-created structured notes stimulate cre¬ativity and make notetaking a more enjoyable activity.
This strategy can be adapted for elementary through high school levels and can be used success¬fully with materials in all content areas.
References and Suggested Reading
Armbruster, B., & Anderson, T. (1982). Idea mapping: The tecbnigue and its use in The classroom (Reading Education Report No. 36). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
13uehl, D. (1995). Classroom strategies forlnteractlve learning. Madison, W[: Wisconsin State Reading Association.
Jones, B., Pierce, J., & Hunter, B. (1988/1989). Teaching stu¬dents to construct graphic representations. Educational leadersblp, 46,20-25.
Smith, P., & Tompkins, G. (1988). Structured notetaking: A new strategy for content area readers. Journal ofReading, 32, 46-53.
6
Life in Chicago
for African Americans
• Recruited to north by factories needing laborers.
• Were protected with free transportation (railroads).
• Agents sent south encouraged African Americans to come north.
• World War 1 caused need for workers and brought about new jobs and new factories.
- New laws restricted immigra¬tion from other countries.
-The Chicago Defender news¬paper spoke to African Ameri¬cans.
Hangings and lynchings were increasing in the south.
• Last hired, first fired.
• Had jobs but little money.
• Postwar depression put peo¬ple out of work.
• Created neighborhoods for all African Americans.
• Housing shortages.
• Culture flourished-music, food, churches.
• African American city leaders and business leaders emerged.
• Competed torjobs with re¬turning WWt soldiers.
• Race riots, bombs, killings
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